Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν, phrēn, "mind"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading "bumps"). Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall around 1800, and very popular in the 19th century, it is now discredited as a pseudoscience. Phrenology has however received credit as a protoscience for having contributed to medical science the ideas that the brain is the organ of the mind and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions (see in particular, Brodmann's areas).
Its principles were that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that mind has a set of different mental faculties, each particular faculty being represented in a different part or organ of the brain. These areas were said to be proportional to a given individual's propensities and importance of a mental faculty, and the overlying skull bone to reflect these differences.
Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, is to be distinguished from craniometry, which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy, the study of facial features. However, these fields have all claimed the ability to predict traits or intelligence. They were once intensively practised in anthropology/ethnology and sometimes utilized to "scientifically" justify racism. While some principles of phrenology are well-established today, the basic premise that personality is determined by skull shape is considered to be false.
Saturday, April 28, 2007
Physiognomy
Physiognomy (Gk. physis, nature and gnomon, judge, interpreter) is a theory based upon the idea that the study and judgement of a person's outer appearance, primarily the face, may give insights into their character or personality. The term physiognomy is also used to refer to the general appearance of a person, object, or terrain, without reference to its underlying or scientific characteristics.
This article will deal with physiognomy as a theory of character evaluation that may produce a set of correlations that do not always evidence themselves in the general population. Physiognomy is not a strict science, but rather a method of analysis that indicates a variety of correlations in its subjects. Again, it is not always accurate when applied to the broad population. For this reason, physiognomy is not used as the basis of biological or psychological theory. That application of its ideas is folk science or pseudoscience and, in the past, has been used, along with other forms of scientific racism, to promote discriminatory ideas.
The word was in common use in Middle English as fisnamy or visnomy (as in the Tale of Beryn, a 15th Century sequel to the Canterbury Tales: "I knowe wele by thy fisnamy, thy kynd it were to stele"). Its validity was once widely accepted, and it was taught in universities until the time of Henry VIII of England, who outlawed it (along with "Palmestrye") in 1531[1]. Around this time, scholastic leaders settled on the more erudite Greek form 'physiognomy' and began to discourage the whole concept of 'fisnamy'.
The following types of physiognomy may be distinguished:
absolute predictive physiognomy, in which there are believed to be invariable 100% correlations between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits; this has been disproven
scientific correlation physiognomy, in which there are believed to be rough statistical correlations between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits due to a person's physical preferences that are caused by corresponding character traits, such that gene mixing causes the correlations; this type of physiognomy is therefore allegedly based on genetic determinism of character. Although this type of physiognomy has generally been disproven as well, the idea has been revived as personology. The main explanation of personology, much of which is also considered pseudoscientific by mainsteam scientists, is that in general biology, different physical makeups correlate with different behaviours. For example, an illegal drug user often has a gaunt/desperate appearance, people who appear frail are unlikely to be demanding and more generally a life of smiling or frowning may leave a physical mark (especially on older people).
This article will deal with physiognomy as a theory of character evaluation that may produce a set of correlations that do not always evidence themselves in the general population. Physiognomy is not a strict science, but rather a method of analysis that indicates a variety of correlations in its subjects. Again, it is not always accurate when applied to the broad population. For this reason, physiognomy is not used as the basis of biological or psychological theory. That application of its ideas is folk science or pseudoscience and, in the past, has been used, along with other forms of scientific racism, to promote discriminatory ideas.
The word was in common use in Middle English as fisnamy or visnomy (as in the Tale of Beryn, a 15th Century sequel to the Canterbury Tales: "I knowe wele by thy fisnamy, thy kynd it were to stele"). Its validity was once widely accepted, and it was taught in universities until the time of Henry VIII of England, who outlawed it (along with "Palmestrye") in 1531[1]. Around this time, scholastic leaders settled on the more erudite Greek form 'physiognomy' and began to discourage the whole concept of 'fisnamy'.
The following types of physiognomy may be distinguished:
absolute predictive physiognomy, in which there are believed to be invariable 100% correlations between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits; this has been disproven
scientific correlation physiognomy, in which there are believed to be rough statistical correlations between physical features (especially facial features) and character traits due to a person's physical preferences that are caused by corresponding character traits, such that gene mixing causes the correlations; this type of physiognomy is therefore allegedly based on genetic determinism of character. Although this type of physiognomy has generally been disproven as well, the idea has been revived as personology. The main explanation of personology, much of which is also considered pseudoscientific by mainsteam scientists, is that in general biology, different physical makeups correlate with different behaviours. For example, an illegal drug user often has a gaunt/desperate appearance, people who appear frail are unlikely to be demanding and more generally a life of smiling or frowning may leave a physical mark (especially on older people).
Parapsychology
Parapsychology is the scientific study of certain types of paranormal phenomena, or of phenomena which appear to be paranormal. The term is based on the Greek para (beside/beyond), psyche (soul/mind), and logos (account/explanation) and was coined by psychologist Max Dessoir in or before 1889. Its first appearance was in an article by Dessoir in the June 1889 issue of the German publication Sphinx. J.B.Rhine later popularized "parapsychology" as a replacement for the earlier term "psychical research", during a shift in methodologies which brought experimental methods to the study of psychic phenomena. In contemporary research, the term 'parapsychology' refers to the study of psi, a general blanket term used by academic parapsychologists to denote anomalous processes or outcomes.
The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena and the validity of scientific parapsychological research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is regarded by critics as a pseudoscience. Parapsychologists, in turn, say that parapsychological research is scientifically rigorous. Despite criticisms, a number of academic institutions now conduct research on the topic, employing laboratory methodologies and statistical techniques, such as meta-analysis.[citation needed] The Parapsychological Association is the leading association for parapsychologists and has been a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 1969.
The scientific reality of parapsychological phenomena and the validity of scientific parapsychological research is a matter of frequent dispute and criticism. The field is regarded by critics as a pseudoscience. Parapsychologists, in turn, say that parapsychological research is scientifically rigorous. Despite criticisms, a number of academic institutions now conduct research on the topic, employing laboratory methodologies and statistical techniques, such as meta-analysis.[citation needed] The Parapsychological Association is the leading association for parapsychologists and has been a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science since 1969.
Neuro Linguistic Programming
Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) is a personal development system developed in the early 1970s by Richard Bandler and John Grinder, in association with Gregory Bateson. It uses a toolbox of strategies, axioms and beliefs about human perception and subjective experience.
NLP's core idea is that an individual's thoughts, gestures and words interact to create one's perception of the world. By changing one's outlook, therefore, a person can improve his attitudes and actions. These observations can be changed by applying a variety of techniques.
NLP teaches that a person can develop successful habits by amplifying helpful behaviors and diminishing negative ones. Positive change can come when one carefully reproduces the behaviors and beliefs of successful people (called 'modeling'). It also states that all human beings have all the resources necessary for success within themselves.
Bandler and Grinder credited three successful therapists Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir and Milton Erickson as NLP's major inspirations. They 'modeled' the therapists and developed special “patterns” for general communication, rapport-building and self-improvement. NLP author Robert Dilts calls the system "the study of the structure of subjective experience." Curtiss cites Mind Dynamics as forming the initial basis for Neuro-Linguistic Programming. DuMerton and Partridge have referred to Neuro-linguistic programming as a form of Large Group Awareness Training.
NLP is controversial. Some scientists do not accept it as science, since its claims lack scientific validation. It has also been criticized for lacking a defining and regulating body to impose standards and a professional ethical code. Even so, NLP remains popular as an approach to self-help, personal influence and business communication. It is also used as an adjunct by therapists in other therapeutic disciplines.
NLP's core idea is that an individual's thoughts, gestures and words interact to create one's perception of the world. By changing one's outlook, therefore, a person can improve his attitudes and actions. These observations can be changed by applying a variety of techniques.
NLP teaches that a person can develop successful habits by amplifying helpful behaviors and diminishing negative ones. Positive change can come when one carefully reproduces the behaviors and beliefs of successful people (called 'modeling'). It also states that all human beings have all the resources necessary for success within themselves.
Bandler and Grinder credited three successful therapists Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir and Milton Erickson as NLP's major inspirations. They 'modeled' the therapists and developed special “patterns” for general communication, rapport-building and self-improvement. NLP author Robert Dilts calls the system "the study of the structure of subjective experience." Curtiss cites Mind Dynamics as forming the initial basis for Neuro-Linguistic Programming. DuMerton and Partridge have referred to Neuro-linguistic programming as a form of Large Group Awareness Training.
NLP is controversial. Some scientists do not accept it as science, since its claims lack scientific validation. It has also been criticized for lacking a defining and regulating body to impose standards and a professional ethical code. Even so, NLP remains popular as an approach to self-help, personal influence and business communication. It is also used as an adjunct by therapists in other therapeutic disciplines.
Breathwork
Breathwork usually refers to deliberate hyperventilation, when used within psychotherapy or meditation. Proponents believe the technique may be used to attain alternate states of consciousness, and that sustained practice of breathwork may result in spiritual or psychological benefits.
Types of Breathwork
Several recent Western therapies are based on mild to extreme alterations of normal breathing, and describe themselves as Breathwork. These include:
Holotropic Breathwork, developed by Stanislav Grof
Radiance Breathwork, developed by Gay Hendricks
Rebirthing-Breathwork, developed by Leonard Orr
Origins of Breathwork
Breathwork has also been used as a label for yogic Pranayama and Tibetan Tantric Tummo, traditional practices from which the modern Western therapies most probably derive. Occasional use of the term Breathwork to describe Buddhist Anapanasati or “mindfulness of breathing” appears to be misleading, because in that the meditator breathes naturally, without attempting to change the length or depth of the breath.
Criticism
Critics have pointed to well-known physiological dangers associated with hyperventilation, such as hypoxia. Others conversant with the esoteric ideas underlying much Breathwork have also raised concerns about unskilful or premature psychospiritual awakening of patients or meditators.
Types of Breathwork
Several recent Western therapies are based on mild to extreme alterations of normal breathing, and describe themselves as Breathwork. These include:
Holotropic Breathwork, developed by Stanislav Grof
Radiance Breathwork, developed by Gay Hendricks
Rebirthing-Breathwork, developed by Leonard Orr
Origins of Breathwork
Breathwork has also been used as a label for yogic Pranayama and Tibetan Tantric Tummo, traditional practices from which the modern Western therapies most probably derive. Occasional use of the term Breathwork to describe Buddhist Anapanasati or “mindfulness of breathing” appears to be misleading, because in that the meditator breathes naturally, without attempting to change the length or depth of the breath.
Criticism
Critics have pointed to well-known physiological dangers associated with hyperventilation, such as hypoxia. Others conversant with the esoteric ideas underlying much Breathwork have also raised concerns about unskilful or premature psychospiritual awakening of patients or meditators.
Handwriting Analysis
Systems of handwriting analysis
Graphoanalysis
Psychogram
Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. The core tenet is that every stroke of handwriting has a meaning which can be understood only within the context of the other strokes present in the handwriting.
Basic Traits are the meanings that are ascribed to individual stroke structures. These scores are derived from the frequency and intensity of the stroke structure.
Evaluated Traits are the meanings ascribed to clusters of individual stroke structures. This indicates how the trait is made manifest in the personality.
A professional Graphoanalyst bases their report exclusively on the Evaluated Trait scores.
The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. Such a profile, showing the quantitative relation between the magnitudes of all the traits concerned, has closer kinship with the whole personality than have any of the separate factors.
As a psychological "map", the contribution of several different factors to the personality as a whole can be more easily understood. With this chart, the same group of personality traits can be measured in a number of different persons, classifying different types of profile rather than analyzing the participant traits.
In graphology, it refers to a specific system of handwriting analysis that falls within the approach of Holistic Graphology.
Graphoanalysis
Psychogram
Graphoanalysis (a registered trademark of the International Graphoanalysis Society) is a system of Handwriting Analysis that falls within the approach of Integrative Graphology. The core tenet is that every stroke of handwriting has a meaning which can be understood only within the context of the other strokes present in the handwriting.
Basic Traits are the meanings that are ascribed to individual stroke structures. These scores are derived from the frequency and intensity of the stroke structure.
Evaluated Traits are the meanings ascribed to clusters of individual stroke structures. This indicates how the trait is made manifest in the personality.
A professional Graphoanalyst bases their report exclusively on the Evaluated Trait scores.
The term psychogram was coined by Hollingworth in 1922, and now refers, in general, to any chart on which personality traits are marked according to a guiding psychological viewpoint. Such a profile, showing the quantitative relation between the magnitudes of all the traits concerned, has closer kinship with the whole personality than have any of the separate factors.
As a psychological "map", the contribution of several different factors to the personality as a whole can be more easily understood. With this chart, the same group of personality traits can be measured in a number of different persons, classifying different types of profile rather than analyzing the participant traits.
In graphology, it refers to a specific system of handwriting analysis that falls within the approach of Holistic Graphology.
Ecopsychology
Ecopsychology connects psychology and ecology in a new scientific paradigm. The political and practical implications are to show humans ways of healing alienation and to build a sane society and a sustainable culture. Theodore Roszak is credited with coining the term in his 1995 anthology, Ecopsychology, which he co-edited with Mary Gomes and Allen Kanner. This book, with articles by each of the editors and many others who would become prominent voices in the field, is still considered by many to be an excellent primer on Ecopsychology. To others, it could be more accurately termed a call for such a field to be developed. As mentioned by Roszak, there are a variety of other names used to describe this field: Psychoecology, ecotherapy, environmental psychology, global therapy, green therapy, Earth-centered therapy, reearthing, nature-based psychotherapy, shamanic counselling, sylvan therapy.
The basic idea of ecopsychology is that while the human mind is shaped by the modern social world, it can be readily inspired and comforted by the wider natural world, because that is the arena in which it originally evolved. Mental health or unhealth cannot be understood in the narrow context of only intrapsychic phenomena or social relations. One also has to include the relationship of humans to other species and ecosystems. These relations have a deep evolutionary history; reach a natural affinity within the structure of their brains and they have deep psychic significance in the present time, in spite of urbanization. Humans are dependent on healthy nature not only for their physical sustenance, but for mental health, too. The destruction of ecosystems means that something in humans also dies.
Practical benefits
An important part of ecopsychological practice is to take psychotherapy out of office buildings and into the open. A simple walk in the woods, even in a city park, is refreshing, because that's what humans have over thousands of years evolved to do. The beneficial effects of natural settings, and even of looking at pictures of landscapes, can be measured. They have been verified in psychological studies.
Steps taken to accept and notice nature can sharpen the senses and give new skills. For example, the ability to track and navigate through a wilderness is improved if nature is noticed and accepted rather than feared. Sailors who appreciate the sea gain a keen sense for breeze directions, giving them speed over water. An appreciation for nature gives greater skills in its domain. While these survival skills may not be needed in modern society, they can have broader value by improving confidence and awareness.
Reasons to embrace nature
Ecopsychology explores how to make links and bonds with nature. It considers that this is worth doing, because when nature is explored and viewed without judgement, it gives the sensations of harmony, balance, timelessness and stability. Ecopsychology largely rejects reductionist views of nature that focus upon rudimentary building blocks such as genes, and that describe nature as selfish and a struggle to survive. Ecopsychology considers that there has been insufficient scientific description and exploration of nature, in terms of wildness, parsimony, spirituality and emotional ties. For example, parsimony is the best way to produce an evolutionary tree of the species (cladistics), suggesting that parsimonious adaptations are selected. Yet today, the brain is often seen as complicated and governed by inherited mind modules, rather than being a simple organ that looks for parsimony within the influences of its surroundings, resulting in the compaction in minds of a great diversity of concepts.
Cultures that embrace nature
In its exploration of how to bond with nature, ecopsychology is interested in the examples provided by a wide variety of ancient and modern cultures that have histories of embracing nature. Examples include aboriginal, pagan and Hindu cultures, and shamanism. This is not to say that such cultures are viewed without scepticism where appropriate. Of interest is how the self identity becomes entwined with nature, so that loss of those sacred places is far more devastating to indigenous people than often understood. Other lessons include how to live sustainably within an environment, and the self sacrifices made to tolerate natural limits, such as a nomadic existence that allows the environment to regenerate, or population control.
Pain and delusions without nature
Ecopsychology recognizes the escalating spread of pain and despair being felt by people in response to nature’s continuing destruction. It is disappointing to a human that this destruction occurs at the hands of his or her own species, which makes one doubt the quality of one's species, or the current degree (or delusion) of its wisdom. The destruction is not likely to end, until humans regain an identity and bonding with nature.
Ecopsychology recognizes that without the influence of nature, humans are prone to a variety of delusions. For example, they can become self-centered, alienated and insensitive. Wildness in nature is not controllable by humans, so can undo preconceived ideas. If nature is excluded, insights that could correct a deluded mind will occur more rarely.
The basic idea of ecopsychology is that while the human mind is shaped by the modern social world, it can be readily inspired and comforted by the wider natural world, because that is the arena in which it originally evolved. Mental health or unhealth cannot be understood in the narrow context of only intrapsychic phenomena or social relations. One also has to include the relationship of humans to other species and ecosystems. These relations have a deep evolutionary history; reach a natural affinity within the structure of their brains and they have deep psychic significance in the present time, in spite of urbanization. Humans are dependent on healthy nature not only for their physical sustenance, but for mental health, too. The destruction of ecosystems means that something in humans also dies.
Practical benefits
An important part of ecopsychological practice is to take psychotherapy out of office buildings and into the open. A simple walk in the woods, even in a city park, is refreshing, because that's what humans have over thousands of years evolved to do. The beneficial effects of natural settings, and even of looking at pictures of landscapes, can be measured. They have been verified in psychological studies.
Steps taken to accept and notice nature can sharpen the senses and give new skills. For example, the ability to track and navigate through a wilderness is improved if nature is noticed and accepted rather than feared. Sailors who appreciate the sea gain a keen sense for breeze directions, giving them speed over water. An appreciation for nature gives greater skills in its domain. While these survival skills may not be needed in modern society, they can have broader value by improving confidence and awareness.
Reasons to embrace nature
Ecopsychology explores how to make links and bonds with nature. It considers that this is worth doing, because when nature is explored and viewed without judgement, it gives the sensations of harmony, balance, timelessness and stability. Ecopsychology largely rejects reductionist views of nature that focus upon rudimentary building blocks such as genes, and that describe nature as selfish and a struggle to survive. Ecopsychology considers that there has been insufficient scientific description and exploration of nature, in terms of wildness, parsimony, spirituality and emotional ties. For example, parsimony is the best way to produce an evolutionary tree of the species (cladistics), suggesting that parsimonious adaptations are selected. Yet today, the brain is often seen as complicated and governed by inherited mind modules, rather than being a simple organ that looks for parsimony within the influences of its surroundings, resulting in the compaction in minds of a great diversity of concepts.
Cultures that embrace nature
In its exploration of how to bond with nature, ecopsychology is interested in the examples provided by a wide variety of ancient and modern cultures that have histories of embracing nature. Examples include aboriginal, pagan and Hindu cultures, and shamanism. This is not to say that such cultures are viewed without scepticism where appropriate. Of interest is how the self identity becomes entwined with nature, so that loss of those sacred places is far more devastating to indigenous people than often understood. Other lessons include how to live sustainably within an environment, and the self sacrifices made to tolerate natural limits, such as a nomadic existence that allows the environment to regenerate, or population control.
Pain and delusions without nature
Ecopsychology recognizes the escalating spread of pain and despair being felt by people in response to nature’s continuing destruction. It is disappointing to a human that this destruction occurs at the hands of his or her own species, which makes one doubt the quality of one's species, or the current degree (or delusion) of its wisdom. The destruction is not likely to end, until humans regain an identity and bonding with nature.
Ecopsychology recognizes that without the influence of nature, humans are prone to a variety of delusions. For example, they can become self-centered, alienated and insensitive. Wildness in nature is not controllable by humans, so can undo preconceived ideas. If nature is excluded, insights that could correct a deluded mind will occur more rarely.
Meditation
Meditation describes a state of concentrated attention on some object of thought or awareness. It usually involves turning the attention inward to the mind itself. Meditation is often recognized as a component of Eastern religions, where it has been practiced for over 5,000 years. It has also become mainstream in Western culture. It encompasses any of a wide variety of spiritual practices which emphasize mental activity or quiescence. Meditation can be used for personal development, or to focus the mind on God (or an aspect of God).Most traditions address the integration of mind, body, and spirit (this is a major theme of the Bhagavad-Gita); or that of spiritual practice with family life, work, and so on. Often, meditation is said to be incomplete if it doesn't lead to positive changes in one's daily life and attitudes. In that spirit some Zen practitioners have promoted "Zen driving," aimed at reducing road rage.
Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully. Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations.
Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle. Many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. Some traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice: Sufi poets (e.g. Rumi, Hafiz) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam.
Most meditative traditions discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism and the Rastafari movement, which have a long tradition of cannabis using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which use peyote, ayahuasca, or other restricted substances in a religious setting.
A number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, and so on, in a lineage. Most Chinese traditions rely on the Confucian concept of a Sifu. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit guru, Tibetan lama). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek gerontas, Russian starets); Catholic religious have spiritual directors.
The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates, and others offer instructions for an altar or other accessories.
Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or suggest different physical postures for meditation. Most famous are the several cross-legged postures, including the Lotus Position.
Many meditative traditions teach that the spine should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit prana, Chinese qi, Latin spiritus) or the Kundalini. In some traditions the meditator may sit on a chair, flat-footed (as in New Thought); sit on a stool (as in Orthodox Christianity); or walk in mindfulness (as in Theravada Buddhism).
Various hand-gestures or mudras may be prescribed. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect consciousness. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.
Quiet is often held to be desirable, and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing, humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state. Practitioners of the Soto Zen tradition meditate with their eyes open, facing a wall, but most schools of meditation assume that the eyes will be closed or only half-open.
Often such details are shared by more than one religion, even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely. One example would be "navel-gazing," which is apparently attested within Eastern Orthodoxy as well as Chinese qigong practice. Another would be the practice of focusing on the breath, which is found in Orthodox Christianity, Sufism, and numerous Indic traditions.
Sitting cross-legged (or upon one's knees) for extended periods when one is not sufficiently limber, can result in a range of ergonomic complaints called "meditator's knee".
Frequency and duration
These vary so greatly that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, one-minute meditations are not out of the question.
Twenty or thirty minutes is broadly accepted as being a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial.
Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance. Also, many meditators stress the importance of continual practice in order to strengthen concentration for prolonged meditation sessions as well as increased focus during their daily lives.
Purposes and effects of meditation
Main article: Health applications and clinical studies of meditation
The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's God. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation.
Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation — sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God or from the Holy Spirit/Ghost, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator alone, just as some say that a person will not convert to Christianity without the influence of the Holy Spirit/Ghost's presence.
Commonly reported results from meditation include:
Greater faith in, or understanding of, one's religion or beliefs
An increase in patience, compassion, and other virtues and morals or the understanding of them
Feelings of calm or peace, and/or moments of great joy
Consciousness of sin, temptation, and remorse, and a spirit of contrition.
Sensitivity to certain forms of lighting, such as fluorescent lights or computer screens, and sometimes heightened sense-perception.
Surfacing of buried memories.
Experience of spiritual phenomena such as kundalini, extra-sensory perception, or visions of deities, saints, demons, etc.
Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, Mahayana Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the bodhisattva vow). Some, as in certain sects of Christianity, say that these things are possible, but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of God.
Meditation is often presented not as a "free-standing" activity, but as one part of a wider spiritual tradition. Nevertheless, many meditators today do not follow an organized religion, or do not consider themselves to do so faithfully. Religious authorities typically insist that spiritual practices such as meditation belong in the context of a well-rounded religious life that may include ritual or liturgy, scriptural study, and the observance of religious laws or regulations.
Perhaps the most widely-cited spiritual prerequisite for meditation is an ethical lifestyle. Many martial arts teachers urge their students to respect parents and teachers, and inculcate other positive values. Some traditions incorporate "crazy wisdom" or intentionally transgressive acts, in their sacred lore if not in actual practice: Sufi poets (e.g. Rumi, Hafiz) celebrate the virtues of wine, which is forbidden in Islam.
Most meditative traditions discourage drug use. Exceptions include some forms of Hinduism and the Rastafari movement, which have a long tradition of cannabis using renunciates; and certain Native American traditions, which use peyote, ayahuasca, or other restricted substances in a religious setting.
A number of meditative traditions requires permission from a teacher or elder, who in turn has received permission from another teacher, and so on, in a lineage. Most Chinese traditions rely on the Confucian concept of a Sifu. Hinduism and Buddhism stress the importance of a spiritual teacher (Sanskrit guru, Tibetan lama). Orthodox Christianity has "spiritual elders" (Greek gerontas, Russian starets); Catholic religious have spiritual directors.
The immediate meditative environment is often held to be important. Several traditions incorporate cleansing rituals for the place where one meditates, and others offer instructions for an altar or other accessories.
Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or suggest different physical postures for meditation. Most famous are the several cross-legged postures, including the Lotus Position.
Many meditative traditions teach that the spine should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit prana, Chinese qi, Latin spiritus) or the Kundalini. In some traditions the meditator may sit on a chair, flat-footed (as in New Thought); sit on a stool (as in Orthodox Christianity); or walk in mindfulness (as in Theravada Buddhism).
Various hand-gestures or mudras may be prescribed. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect consciousness. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.
Quiet is often held to be desirable, and some people use repetitive activities such as deep breathing, humming or chanting to help induce a meditative state. Practitioners of the Soto Zen tradition meditate with their eyes open, facing a wall, but most schools of meditation assume that the eyes will be closed or only half-open.
Often such details are shared by more than one religion, even in cases where mutual influence seems unlikely. One example would be "navel-gazing," which is apparently attested within Eastern Orthodoxy as well as Chinese qigong practice. Another would be the practice of focusing on the breath, which is found in Orthodox Christianity, Sufism, and numerous Indic traditions.
Sitting cross-legged (or upon one's knees) for extended periods when one is not sufficiently limber, can result in a range of ergonomic complaints called "meditator's knee".
Frequency and duration
These vary so greatly that it is difficult to venture any general comments. On one extreme there exist monks and nuns whose whole lives are ordered around meditation; on the other hand, one-minute meditations are not out of the question.
Twenty or thirty minutes is broadly accepted as being a typical duration. Experienced meditators often find their sessions growing in length of their own accord. Observing the advice and instructions of one's spiritual teacher is generally held to be most beneficial.
Many traditions stress regular practice. Accordingly, many meditators experience guilt or frustration upon failing to do so. Possible responses range from perseverance to acceptance. Also, many meditators stress the importance of continual practice in order to strengthen concentration for prolonged meditation sessions as well as increased focus during their daily lives.
Purposes and effects of meditation
Main article: Health applications and clinical studies of meditation
The purposes for which people meditate vary almost as widely as practices. Meditation may serve simply as a means of relaxation from a busy daily routine; as a technique for cultivating mental discipline; or as a means of gaining insight into the nature of reality, or of communing with one's God. Many report improved concentration, awareness, self-discipline and equanimity through meditation.
Many authorities avoid emphasizing the effects of meditation — sometimes out of modesty, sometimes for fear that the expectation of results might interfere with one's meditation. For theists, the effects of meditation are considered a gift of God or from the Holy Spirit/Ghost, and not something that is "achieved" by the meditator alone, just as some say that a person will not convert to Christianity without the influence of the Holy Spirit/Ghost's presence.
Commonly reported results from meditation include:
Greater faith in, or understanding of, one's religion or beliefs
An increase in patience, compassion, and other virtues and morals or the understanding of them
Feelings of calm or peace, and/or moments of great joy
Consciousness of sin, temptation, and remorse, and a spirit of contrition.
Sensitivity to certain forms of lighting, such as fluorescent lights or computer screens, and sometimes heightened sense-perception.
Surfacing of buried memories.
Experience of spiritual phenomena such as kundalini, extra-sensory perception, or visions of deities, saints, demons, etc.
Some traditions acknowledge that many types of experiences and effects are possible, but instruct the meditator to keep in mind the spiritual purpose of the meditation, and not be distracted by lesser concerns. For example, Mahayana Buddhists are urged to meditate for the sake of "full and perfect enlightenment for all sentient beings" (the bodhisattva vow). Some, as in certain sects of Christianity, say that these things are possible, but are only to be supported if they are to the glory of God.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) which involves measuring a subject's bodily processes such as blood pressure, heart rate, skin temperature, galvanic skin response (sweating), and muscle tension and conveying such information to him or her in real-time in order to raise his or her awareness and conscious control of the related physiological activities.
By providing access to physiological information about which the user is generally unaware, biofeedback allows users to gain control over physical processes previously considered automatic. Interest in biofeedback has waxed and waned since its inception in the 1960s; at the beginning of the 21st century it is undergoing something of a renaissance, which some ascribe to the general upswing of interest in complementary and alternative medicine modalities. Neurofeedback has become a popular treatment for ADHD; electromyogram (muscle tension) biofeedback has been widely studied and accepted as a treatment for incontinence disorders, and small home biofeedback machines are becoming available for a variety of uses. Its role in controlling hypertension is becoming recognised .
Types of biofeedback instrumentation :
Electromyogram (EMG)
An Electromyogram is the most common form of biofeedback measurement. An EMG uses electrodes or other types of sensors to measure muscle tension. By the EMG alerting you to muscle tension, you can learn to recognize the feeling early on and try to control the tension right away. EMG is mainly used as a relaxation technique to help ease tension in those muscles involved in backaches, headaches, neck pain and grinding your teeth (bruxism). An EMG may be used to treat some illnesses in which the symptoms tend to worsen under stress, such as asthma and ulcers.
Peripheral skin temperature
Sensors attached to your fingers or feet measure your skin temperature. Because body temperature often drops when a person experiences stress, a low reading can prompt you to begin relaxation techniques. Temperature biofeedback can help treat certain circulatory disorders, such as Raynaud's disease, or reduce the frequency of migraines. The physiological process behind the temperature drop associated with the stress response is quite simply vasoconstriction (blood vessels narrowed by the smooth musculature in their walls)
Galvanic skin response training
With Galvanic skin response training, sensors measure the activity of your sweat glands and the amount of perspiration on your skin alerting you to anxiety. This information can be useful in treating emotional disorders such as phobias, anxiety and stuttering. This is the method most commonly used by lie detector machines. It is the most popular form of biofeedback, with over 500,000 hand-held GSR2 units having been purchased by consumers since the early '70s; it is also one of the biofeedback methods used by Calmlink and the video game series Journey to Wild Divine. Galvanic Skin Response meters are also now gaining popularity in hypnotherapy and psychotherapy practice where subtle physiological changes indicating emotional arousal can be more easily detected than by observation alone.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
An EEG monitors the activity of brain waves linked to different mental states, such as wakefulness, relaxation, calmness, light sleep and deep sleep. This is the least common of the methods, mostly due to the cost and availability of an EEG machine.
Origins of biofeedback
Neal Miller, a psychology Ph.D and neuroscientist who worked and studied at Yale University, is generally considered to be the father of modern-day biofeedback. He came across the basic principles of biofeedback while doing animal experimentation conditioning the behavior of rats. His team found that, by stimulating the pleasure center of a rat's brain with electricity, it was possible to train them to control phenomena ranging from their heart rates to their brainwaves. Until that point, it was believed that bodily processes such as heart rate were under the control of the autonomic nervous system and not responsive to conscious effort.
The Miller group was one of three major approaches to understanding the limits of self-regulation of the body. Voluntary control of the autonomic nervous system had been considered impossible, only controlled by conditioning. Other threads of inquiry leading to "biofeedback" emerged from clinical attempts to use mind/body self-regulation techniques in healthcare. Elmer Green, PhD of the Menninger Foundation produced some of the original research on the limits of human self-regulation of normally unconscious processes and applied these techniques successfully to migraine headache and hypertension. Barbara Brown, PhD actually coined the word "biofeedback" during the early days of the field, as the Biofeedback Research Society was being formed. Other early pioneers were interested in "consciousness" and looked at EEG self-regulation as a way to approach mind vs. brain distinctions - see the work of Joe Kamiya, PhD. Other early efforts were directed toward examining the claims of yogis and other meditators for demonstrated mind/body control and markers of states of consciousness. See Elmer Green et al Beyond Biofeedback and Barbara Brown Stress & The Art of Biofeedback for some early writings. The Biofeedback Research Society evolved into the Biofeedback Society of America and more recently the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, a scientific and professional society for the field.
Biofeedback in art.
Biofeedback data and biofeedback technology have been used by Massimiliano Peretti in a contemporary art environment, the Amigdalae project. This project explores how emotional reactions filter and distort human perception and observation. During the performance, biofeedback medical technology, such as encephalography, body temperature variations, heart frequency and galvanic responses, will be used to analyze people's emotional status as they watch video art. Using these signals, the music will change, so that the consequent sound environment will simultaneously mirror and distort the viewer's emotional state.
More information is available at the website of the CNRS French National Center of Neural Research.
Biofeedback and Religion.
Worldwide, exercises to develop biofeedback awareness have been used for centuries by various religious and spiritual orders (Yoga is one example.)
Astrology
Astrology is a group of systems, traditions, and beliefs in which knowledge of the relative positions of celestial bodies and related details is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing information about personality, human affairs, and other terrestrial matters. A practitioner of astrology is called an astrologer, or, less often, an astrologist. Historically, the term mathematicus was used to denote a person proficient in astrology, astronomy, and mathematics.
Although the two fields share a common origin, modern astronomy is entirely distinct from astrology. Astronomy is the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena, whereas astrology is concerned with the attempt to correlate these phenomena with earthly affairs. Astrology is variously considered by its proponents to be a symbolic language, a form of art, science, or divination. The scientific community generally considers astrology to be a pseudoscience or superstition as astrologers have failed empirical tests in controlled studies. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, belief in astrology is widespread.
The word astrology is derived from the Greek αστρολογία, from άστηρ (aster, "star") and λόγος (logos, "speech, statement, reason"). The -λογία suffix is written in English as -logy, "study" or "discipline".
The main traditions used by modern astrologers are:
Chinese astrology
Jyotisha, Indian or Vedic astrology
Western astrology
Western astrology derives from the ancient Indian astrology and is a horoscopic systems of astrology and so is essentially similar in content. Both traditions focus on the casting of an astrological chart or horoscope, a representation of celestial entities, for an event based on the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the moment of the event. The main difference between the two traditions is that Indian astrology continues to use the sidereal zodiac, linking the signs of the zodiac to their original constellations, while Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (see section below). Because of the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes, over the centuries the twelve zodiacal signs in Western astrology no longer correspond to the same part of the sky as their original constellations (and so to their Indian counterparts). In effect, in Western astrology the link between sign and constellation has been broken, whereas in Indian astrology it remains of paramount importance.
In Chinese astrology a quite different tradition has evolved. By contrast to Western and Indian astrology, the twelve signs of the zodiac do not divide the sky, but rather the celestial equator. The Chinese evolved a system where each sign corresponds to one of twelve 'double-hours' that govern the day, and to one of the twelve months. Also most notably and uniquely, each sign of the zodiac governs a different year, and combines with a system based on the five elements of Chinese cosmology to give a 60 (12 x 5) year cycle. The term Chinese astrology is used here for convenience, but it must be recognised that versions of the same tradition exist in Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and other Asian countries.
In modern times, the three traditions have come into greater contact with each other. Chinese and Indian astrology have spread to the West, and awareness of Western astrology has increased in India and East Asia.
Although the two fields share a common origin, modern astronomy is entirely distinct from astrology. Astronomy is the scientific study of astronomical objects and phenomena, whereas astrology is concerned with the attempt to correlate these phenomena with earthly affairs. Astrology is variously considered by its proponents to be a symbolic language, a form of art, science, or divination. The scientific community generally considers astrology to be a pseudoscience or superstition as astrologers have failed empirical tests in controlled studies. Despite the lack of scientific evidence, belief in astrology is widespread.
The word astrology is derived from the Greek αστρολογία, from άστηρ (aster, "star") and λόγος (logos, "speech, statement, reason"). The -λογία suffix is written in English as -logy, "study" or "discipline".
The main traditions used by modern astrologers are:
Chinese astrology
Jyotisha, Indian or Vedic astrology
Western astrology
Western astrology derives from the ancient Indian astrology and is a horoscopic systems of astrology and so is essentially similar in content. Both traditions focus on the casting of an astrological chart or horoscope, a representation of celestial entities, for an event based on the position of the Sun, Moon, and planets at the moment of the event. The main difference between the two traditions is that Indian astrology continues to use the sidereal zodiac, linking the signs of the zodiac to their original constellations, while Western astrology uses the tropical zodiac (see section below). Because of the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes, over the centuries the twelve zodiacal signs in Western astrology no longer correspond to the same part of the sky as their original constellations (and so to their Indian counterparts). In effect, in Western astrology the link between sign and constellation has been broken, whereas in Indian astrology it remains of paramount importance.
In Chinese astrology a quite different tradition has evolved. By contrast to Western and Indian astrology, the twelve signs of the zodiac do not divide the sky, but rather the celestial equator. The Chinese evolved a system where each sign corresponds to one of twelve 'double-hours' that govern the day, and to one of the twelve months. Also most notably and uniquely, each sign of the zodiac governs a different year, and combines with a system based on the five elements of Chinese cosmology to give a 60 (12 x 5) year cycle. The term Chinese astrology is used here for convenience, but it must be recognised that versions of the same tradition exist in Japan, Vietnam, Thailand and other Asian countries.
In modern times, the three traditions have come into greater contact with each other. Chinese and Indian astrology have spread to the West, and awareness of Western astrology has increased in India and East Asia.
Psychic
Psychic is a term relating to or denoting mental abilities or phenomena that are apparently inexplicable by known natural laws, since they seem to transcend the confines of the brain. People who are thought to have these abilities or to be able to produce these phenomena are often called "psychics". The term comes from the Greek word psychikos, meaning "of the soul, mental," which is in turn derived from the Greek word psyche (soul/mind). It was first used by French astronomer Camille Flammarion (1842 – 1925), who was also a noted spiritualist and psychical researcher.
Psychical research
The rise of modern inquiry into reports of psychical phenomena coincided with the introduction of modern Spiritualism in 1848 and the movement's claims of paranormal abilities. Shortly thereafter, the Society for Psychical Research was founded in Britain (1882) and the American Society for Psychical Research was founded in the United States (1885). Spiritualism was so widespread and the reports of its effects so numerous and impressive that it was inevitable that scientists would be attracted to the alleged phenomena. Early psychical researchers concerned themselves with studying mediums and spiritualist claims. In the early 1900s, a dissatisfaction with the results of the research and political disagreements within psychic research organizations led to a new approach and a new term for the study of psychic phenomena: parapsychology.
Parapsychology began using the experimental approach to psychic phenomena in the 1930s under the direction of J. B. Rhine (1895 – 1980). Rhine popularized the now famous methodology of using card-guessing and dice-rolling experiments in the laboratory in an attempt to find a statistical validation of extra-sensory perception.
In 1957, the Parapsychological Association was formed as the preeminent society for parapsychologists. In 1969, they became affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. That affiliation, along with a general openness to psychic and occult phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this time, other notable organizations were also formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute of Noetic Sciences (1973), and the International Kirlian Research Association (1975). Each of these groups performed experiments on paranormal subjects to varying degrees. Parapsychological work was also conducted at the Stanford Research Institute during this time, research which continued till February 2007.
The methodology and results of parapsychological work are often disputed. However, a consensus within the field of parapsychology is that certain types of psychic phenomena such as psychokinesis, telepathy, and precognition are well established experimentally. Critics such as Ray Hyman argue that the evidence for psi (psychic phenomena) needs further replication and theoretical work before it is accepted. However, the existence of psychics and the validity of parapsychological experiments is disputed by skeptics.
Psychical research
The rise of modern inquiry into reports of psychical phenomena coincided with the introduction of modern Spiritualism in 1848 and the movement's claims of paranormal abilities. Shortly thereafter, the Society for Psychical Research was founded in Britain (1882) and the American Society for Psychical Research was founded in the United States (1885). Spiritualism was so widespread and the reports of its effects so numerous and impressive that it was inevitable that scientists would be attracted to the alleged phenomena. Early psychical researchers concerned themselves with studying mediums and spiritualist claims. In the early 1900s, a dissatisfaction with the results of the research and political disagreements within psychic research organizations led to a new approach and a new term for the study of psychic phenomena: parapsychology.
Parapsychology began using the experimental approach to psychic phenomena in the 1930s under the direction of J. B. Rhine (1895 – 1980). Rhine popularized the now famous methodology of using card-guessing and dice-rolling experiments in the laboratory in an attempt to find a statistical validation of extra-sensory perception.
In 1957, the Parapsychological Association was formed as the preeminent society for parapsychologists. In 1969, they became affiliated with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. That affiliation, along with a general openness to psychic and occult phenomena in the 1970s, led to a decade of increased parapsychological research. During this time, other notable organizations were also formed, including the Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine (1970), the Institute of Parascience (1971), the Academy of Religion and Psychical Research, the Institute of Noetic Sciences (1973), and the International Kirlian Research Association (1975). Each of these groups performed experiments on paranormal subjects to varying degrees. Parapsychological work was also conducted at the Stanford Research Institute during this time, research which continued till February 2007.
The methodology and results of parapsychological work are often disputed. However, a consensus within the field of parapsychology is that certain types of psychic phenomena such as psychokinesis, telepathy, and precognition are well established experimentally. Critics such as Ray Hyman argue that the evidence for psi (psychic phenomena) needs further replication and theoretical work before it is accepted. However, the existence of psychics and the validity of parapsychological experiments is disputed by skeptics.
Dreams.
A dream is the experience of envisioned images, sounds, or other sensations during sleep. It occurs in humans, most mammals, and some birds. The events of dreams are often impossible or unlikely to occur in physical reality, and are usually outside the control of the dreamer. The exception is lucid dreaming, in which dreamers realize that they are dreaming, and are sometimes capable of changing their oneiric reality and controlling various aspects of the dream, in which the suspension of disbelief is often broken. Dreamers may experience strong emotions while dreaming. Frightening or upsetting dreams are referred to as nightmares.
Divination
Divination (Greek μαντεια, from μαντις "seer", anglicized in the suffix -mancy, see also mania) is the attempt of ascertaining information by interpretation of omens or an alleged supernatural agency.
If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a formal or ritual and often social character, usually in a religious context; while fortune-telling is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Divination is often dismissed by skeptics, including the scientific community, as being mere superstition: in the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, Alexander the false prophet, trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates" , though most Romans believed in dreams and charms. Advocates of divination will usually cite a mass of anecdotal evidence for the efficacy of divination.
Divination is a universal cultural phenomenon which anthropologists have observed as being present in many religions and cultures in all ages up to the present day.
If a distinction is to be made between divination and fortune-telling, divination has a formal or ritual and often social character, usually in a religious context; while fortune-telling is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Divination is often dismissed by skeptics, including the scientific community, as being mere superstition: in the 2nd century, Lucian devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, Alexander the false prophet, trained by "one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates" , though most Romans believed in dreams and charms. Advocates of divination will usually cite a mass of anecdotal evidence for the efficacy of divination.
Divination is a universal cultural phenomenon which anthropologists have observed as being present in many religions and cultures in all ages up to the present day.
Hypnotherapy
Hypnotherapy is therapy that is undertaken with a subject in hypnosis.
The word "hypnosis" is an abbreviation of James Braid's (1843) term "neuro-hypnotism", meaning "sleep of the nervous system" However, Braid himself rejected the term "hypnosis" as misleadingly implying a similarity between "hypnosis" and normal sleep. He later attempted to substitute a new terminology by referring instead to "ideism" or "monoideism", an application of the physiological mechanism known as the "ideo-motor response." The ideo-motor theory of suggestion became influential, however, the old terminology of "hypnotism" remains popular to this day.
A person who is hypnotized displays certain unusual characteristics and propensities, compared with a non-hypnotized subject, most notably hyper-suggestibility, which some authorities have considered a sine qua non of hypnosis. For example, Clark L. Hull, probably the first major empirical researcher in the field, wrote,
If a subject after submitting to the hypnotic procedure shows no genuine increase in susceptibility to any suggestions whatever, there seems no point in calling him hypnotised (Hull, Hypnosis & Suggestion, 1933)
Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.
The word "hypnosis" is an abbreviation of James Braid's (1843) term "neuro-hypnotism", meaning "sleep of the nervous system" However, Braid himself rejected the term "hypnosis" as misleadingly implying a similarity between "hypnosis" and normal sleep. He later attempted to substitute a new terminology by referring instead to "ideism" or "monoideism", an application of the physiological mechanism known as the "ideo-motor response." The ideo-motor theory of suggestion became influential, however, the old terminology of "hypnotism" remains popular to this day.
A person who is hypnotized displays certain unusual characteristics and propensities, compared with a non-hypnotized subject, most notably hyper-suggestibility, which some authorities have considered a sine qua non of hypnosis. For example, Clark L. Hull, probably the first major empirical researcher in the field, wrote,
If a subject after submitting to the hypnotic procedure shows no genuine increase in susceptibility to any suggestions whatever, there seems no point in calling him hypnotised (Hull, Hypnosis & Suggestion, 1933)
Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development.
Alchemy
In the history of science, alchemy (Arabic: الكيمياء, al-kimia) refers to both an early form of the investigation of nature and an early philosophical and spiritual discipline, both combining elements of chemistry, metallurgy, physics, medicine, astrology, semiotics, mysticism, spiritualism, and art all as parts of one greater force. Alchemy has been practiced in Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, Persia, India, and China, in Classical Greece and Rome, in Muslim civilization, and then in Europe up to the 19th century—in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.
Western alchemy has always been closely connected with Hermeticism, a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to Hermes Trismegistus, a syncretic Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of Rosicrucianism, an important esoteric movement of the seventeenth century. In the course of the early modern period, mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry.
Today the discipline is of interest mainly to historians of science and philosophy, and for its mystic, esoteric, and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern sciences, and many substances and processes of ancient alchemy continue to be the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries.
Although alchemy takes on many forms, in pop culture it is most often cited in stories, films, shows, and games as the process used to change lead (or other elements) into gold. Also another form that alchemy takes is in the search for the Philosopher's Stone, in which to obtain the ability to transmute gold or to eternal life.
Western alchemy has always been closely connected with Hermeticism, a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to Hermes Trismegistus, a syncretic Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of Rosicrucianism, an important esoteric movement of the seventeenth century. In the course of the early modern period, mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry.
Today the discipline is of interest mainly to historians of science and philosophy, and for its mystic, esoteric, and artistic aspects. Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern sciences, and many substances and processes of ancient alchemy continue to be the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries.
Although alchemy takes on many forms, in pop culture it is most often cited in stories, films, shows, and games as the process used to change lead (or other elements) into gold. Also another form that alchemy takes is in the search for the Philosopher's Stone, in which to obtain the ability to transmute gold or to eternal life.
Near Death Experiences
A near-death experience (NDE) is an experience reported by a person who nearly died, or who experienced clinical death and then revived. Some people believe it can be explained by hallucinations produced by the brain as it dies, while others believe that such an explanation cannot account for all the evidence. The experience has become more common in recent times, especially since the development of cardiac resuscitation techniques. Popular interest in near-death experiences was sparked by Raymond Moody Jr's 1975 book Life after Life and the founding of the International Association for Near-death Studies (IANDS) in 1978. According to a Gallup poll approximately eight million Americans claim to have had a near-death experience. NDEs are among the phenomena studied in the field of parapsychology.
Near-death experience characteristics
The phenomenology of an NDE usually includes physiological, psychological and transcendental aspects. Typically the experience follows a distinct progression
A sense of being dead.
An out-of-body experience. A sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area.
Pleasant feelings, calmness. A sense of overwhelming love and peace.
A sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway.
Meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures.
Encountering a being of light, or a light (possibly a religious or divine figure).
Being given a life review.
Reaching a border or boundary.
A feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by a reluctance.
Some people have also experienced extremely distressing NDEs. A 'core' near-death experience reflects — as intensity increases according to the Rasch scale — peace, joy and harmony, followed by insight and mystical or religious experiences. The most intense NDEs involve an awareness of things occurring in a different place or time, and some of these observations are said to have been evidential.
Among the clinical circumstances that are thought to lead to an NDE we find such factors as: cardiac arrest, shock in postpartum loss of blood or in perioperative complications, septic or anaphylactic shock, electrocution, coma, intracerebral haemorrhage or cerebral infarction, attempted suicide, near-drowning or asphyxia, apnoea, and serious depression.
Near-death experience characteristics
The phenomenology of an NDE usually includes physiological, psychological and transcendental aspects. Typically the experience follows a distinct progression
A sense of being dead.
An out-of-body experience. A sensation of floating above one's body and seeing the surrounding area.
Pleasant feelings, calmness. A sense of overwhelming love and peace.
A sensation of moving upwards through a tunnel or narrow passageway.
Meeting deceased relatives or spiritual figures.
Encountering a being of light, or a light (possibly a religious or divine figure).
Being given a life review.
Reaching a border or boundary.
A feeling of being returned to the body, often accompanied by a reluctance.
Some people have also experienced extremely distressing NDEs. A 'core' near-death experience reflects — as intensity increases according to the Rasch scale — peace, joy and harmony, followed by insight and mystical or religious experiences. The most intense NDEs involve an awareness of things occurring in a different place or time, and some of these observations are said to have been evidential.
Among the clinical circumstances that are thought to lead to an NDE we find such factors as: cardiac arrest, shock in postpartum loss of blood or in perioperative complications, septic or anaphylactic shock, electrocution, coma, intracerebral haemorrhage or cerebral infarction, attempted suicide, near-drowning or asphyxia, apnoea, and serious depression.
Counseling and Coaching
Counseling psychology as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Through the integration of theory, research, and practice, and with a sensitivity to multicultural issues, this specialty encompasses a broad range of practices that help people improve their well-being, alleviate distress and maladjustment, resolve crises, and increase their ability to live more highly functioning lives.
Though closely related to clinical psychology, counseling psychology differs from that field in a several subtle ways. First, counseling psychologists typically focus on less severe psychopathology (e.g., depression and anxiety), while clinical psychologists deal with more seriously disturbed individuals (e.g., those with schizophrenia or personality disorders). Second, counseling psychologists are more likely than clinical psychologists to assume a client-centered or humanistic theoretical approach. Finally, counseling psychology is unique in its attention both to normal developmental issues as well as the problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental disorders. Despite these differences, counseling and clinical psychology are becoming increasingly indistinguishable, leading some to suggest that these fields be combined.
Populations served by counseling psychologists include persons of all ages and cultural backgrounds. Examples of those populations would include late adolescents or adults with career/educational concerns and children or adults facing severe personal difficulties. Counseling psychologists also consult with organizations seeking to enhance their effectiveness or the well-being of their members.
Counseling psychologists adhere to the standards and ethics established by the American Psychological Association and the American Counseling Association. Counseling psychologists or counselors who work in K-12 school settings also need to follow the ethic standard established by the American School Counselor Association. In Australia there are several associations offering standards and ethics. Each professional or trade association has its preferred qualification and practitioner standards, and also suggesting other requirements.
A coach is a person who supports people (clients) to achieve their goals, with goal setting, encouragement and questions. Unlike a counselor or mentor, a coach rarely offers advice. However, term coaching is often misused in situations where the "coach" provides expert opinion and "how to" answers and advice. Coaching does not include the given solution for the problem but will energize the coachee to solve the problem. Typically, a coach helps clients to find their own solutions, by asking questions that give them insight into their situations. A coach holds a client accountable, so if a client agrees to a plan to achieve a goal, a coach will help motivate them to complete their plan.
This use of the term "coaching" appears to have origins in English traditional university "cramming" in the mid-19th century. (The name allegedly recalls the multitasking skills associated with controlling the team of a horse-drawn stagecoach.) By the 1880s American college sports teams had -- in addition to managers -- coaches. Some time in the 20th century, non-sporting coaches emerged: non-experts in the specific technical skills of their clients, but who nevertheless ventured to offer generalised motivational or inspirational advice.
Current practices in performance coaching in non-sporting environments focus on non-directive questioning, provocation and helping clients to analyse and solve their own challenges, rather than offering advice or direction.
Personal Coaching is a term generally used in the fields of business, executive, life, dating and career coaching to differentiate the coaching process from the more popular connotation of sports coaching. However, sports and personal coaching have the same origin.
Personal Coaching is a relationship which is designed and defined in a relationship agreement between a client and a coach. It is based on the client's expressed interests, goals, and objectives.
Personal Coaching is a learning process. A Personal Coach may use inquiry, reflection, requests and discussion to help clients identify personal and/or business and/or relationship goals, develop strategies, relationships and action plans intended to achieve those goals. A coach provides a place for clients to be held accountable to themselves by monitoring the clients' progress towards implementation of their action plans. Together they evolve and modify the plan to best suit the client's needs and environmental relationships. A Personal Coach acts as a human mirror for clients by sharing an outside and unbiased perspective on what they are observing about their clients.
Clients are responsible for their own achievements and success, and a coach cannot and does not promise that a client will take any specific action or attain specific goals.
Personal Coaching is not counseling, therapy or consulting. These different skill sets and approaches to change may be adjunct skills and professions.
Though closely related to clinical psychology, counseling psychology differs from that field in a several subtle ways. First, counseling psychologists typically focus on less severe psychopathology (e.g., depression and anxiety), while clinical psychologists deal with more seriously disturbed individuals (e.g., those with schizophrenia or personality disorders). Second, counseling psychologists are more likely than clinical psychologists to assume a client-centered or humanistic theoretical approach. Finally, counseling psychology is unique in its attention both to normal developmental issues as well as the problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental disorders. Despite these differences, counseling and clinical psychology are becoming increasingly indistinguishable, leading some to suggest that these fields be combined.
Populations served by counseling psychologists include persons of all ages and cultural backgrounds. Examples of those populations would include late adolescents or adults with career/educational concerns and children or adults facing severe personal difficulties. Counseling psychologists also consult with organizations seeking to enhance their effectiveness or the well-being of their members.
Counseling psychologists adhere to the standards and ethics established by the American Psychological Association and the American Counseling Association. Counseling psychologists or counselors who work in K-12 school settings also need to follow the ethic standard established by the American School Counselor Association. In Australia there are several associations offering standards and ethics. Each professional or trade association has its preferred qualification and practitioner standards, and also suggesting other requirements.
A coach is a person who supports people (clients) to achieve their goals, with goal setting, encouragement and questions. Unlike a counselor or mentor, a coach rarely offers advice. However, term coaching is often misused in situations where the "coach" provides expert opinion and "how to" answers and advice. Coaching does not include the given solution for the problem but will energize the coachee to solve the problem. Typically, a coach helps clients to find their own solutions, by asking questions that give them insight into their situations. A coach holds a client accountable, so if a client agrees to a plan to achieve a goal, a coach will help motivate them to complete their plan.
This use of the term "coaching" appears to have origins in English traditional university "cramming" in the mid-19th century. (The name allegedly recalls the multitasking skills associated with controlling the team of a horse-drawn stagecoach.) By the 1880s American college sports teams had -- in addition to managers -- coaches. Some time in the 20th century, non-sporting coaches emerged: non-experts in the specific technical skills of their clients, but who nevertheless ventured to offer generalised motivational or inspirational advice.
Current practices in performance coaching in non-sporting environments focus on non-directive questioning, provocation and helping clients to analyse and solve their own challenges, rather than offering advice or direction.
Personal Coaching is a term generally used in the fields of business, executive, life, dating and career coaching to differentiate the coaching process from the more popular connotation of sports coaching. However, sports and personal coaching have the same origin.
Personal Coaching is a relationship which is designed and defined in a relationship agreement between a client and a coach. It is based on the client's expressed interests, goals, and objectives.
Personal Coaching is a learning process. A Personal Coach may use inquiry, reflection, requests and discussion to help clients identify personal and/or business and/or relationship goals, develop strategies, relationships and action plans intended to achieve those goals. A coach provides a place for clients to be held accountable to themselves by monitoring the clients' progress towards implementation of their action plans. Together they evolve and modify the plan to best suit the client's needs and environmental relationships. A Personal Coach acts as a human mirror for clients by sharing an outside and unbiased perspective on what they are observing about their clients.
Clients are responsible for their own achievements and success, and a coach cannot and does not promise that a client will take any specific action or attain specific goals.
Personal Coaching is not counseling, therapy or consulting. These different skill sets and approaches to change may be adjunct skills and professions.
Spiritual Growth
Spiritual Formation is the life-long process of personal Christian transformation as a believer desires to become more like Jesus Christ. Spiritual formation as an intentional pursuit is usually marked by an individual's adherence to the ancient disciplines of prayer, the study of Scripture, fasting, simplicity, solitude etc.
Spiritual formation derives it's name from Galatians 4:19 where the Apostle Paul expresses his "anguish of childbirth until Christ is formed in you" (ESV).
While essentially a willful lifestyle of submissive discipleship resulting in internal transformation, it is also an academic sub-set in the field of Christian theology. Many seminaries are beginning to underscore the value of spiritual formation as over against a hyper-emphasis on the intellectual rigors of academic theology. Spiritual formation, by contrast, bids the theologian to encounter the resurrected Christ in every facet of his or her life, including but not limited to, the emotions, the will, the personality, morality, and the intellect.
Seminaries such as Ashland Theological Seminary offer degrees and/or concentrations in the field of spiritual formation. The ATS course catalog for instance defines spiritual formation as "the process of nurturing an intimate relationship with God, encompasing heart, soul, and mind. Spiritual formation is obedience to the Word of Christ and an intentional commitment to grow, study, pray, and be held accountable for our life and witness, both before God and one another".
Although spiritual formation may be undertaken as an academic pursuit, its content is highly adaptable by all believers, both clergy and laypersons as well as for youth and children.
Spiritual formation derives it's name from Galatians 4:19 where the Apostle Paul expresses his "anguish of childbirth until Christ is formed in you" (ESV).
While essentially a willful lifestyle of submissive discipleship resulting in internal transformation, it is also an academic sub-set in the field of Christian theology. Many seminaries are beginning to underscore the value of spiritual formation as over against a hyper-emphasis on the intellectual rigors of academic theology. Spiritual formation, by contrast, bids the theologian to encounter the resurrected Christ in every facet of his or her life, including but not limited to, the emotions, the will, the personality, morality, and the intellect.
Seminaries such as Ashland Theological Seminary offer degrees and/or concentrations in the field of spiritual formation. The ATS course catalog for instance defines spiritual formation as "the process of nurturing an intimate relationship with God, encompasing heart, soul, and mind. Spiritual formation is obedience to the Word of Christ and an intentional commitment to grow, study, pray, and be held accountable for our life and witness, both before God and one another".
Although spiritual formation may be undertaken as an academic pursuit, its content is highly adaptable by all believers, both clergy and laypersons as well as for youth and children.
Out of Body Experience
An out-of-body experience (OBE or sometimes OOBE) is an experience that typically involves a sensation of floating outside of one's body and, in some cases, seeing one's physical body from a place outside one's body (autoscopy). Approximately one in ten people claim to have had an out-of-body experience at some time in their lives. For some, the phenomenon occurs spontaneously, while for others it is linked to dangerous circumstances, a dream-like state, a near-death experience, or use of psychedelic drugs. Anyone is able to induce the experience deliberately through visualizations while in a relaxed, meditative state, or through a lucid dream. Relatively little is known with certainty about OBEs. Recent studies have shown that OBEs can be induced by stimulating the angular gyrus at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. Basically it can be considered a type of hallucination in which the subject loses his mind due to delirium.
In some cases, the subjects of OBEs have either willed themselves out of their bodies or found themselves being pulled from their bodies (these instances were usually preceded by the feeling of paralysis). In other cases, the feeling of being outside the body was something suddenly realized after the fact; the subjects saw their bodies almost by accident.
The OBE is not generally long; on the order of a minute or so. Those who experience an OBE may note that the subjective experience is much longer than the objective time passing.
The OBE may or may not be followed by other experiences which are self-reported as being "as real" as the OBE feeling; alternatively, the subject may fade into a state self-reported as dreaming, or they may wake completely. The OBE is sometimes ended due to a fearful feeling of getting "too far away" from the body. Many end with a feeling of suddenly "popping" or "snapping" and sometimes a "Pulling" back into their bodies, some even report being "sucked back" into physical form.
Some subjects experience spiritual epiphanies; others experience a general feeling of peacefulness and love; still others experience fearfulness and anxiety. Finally, some experience only the OBE itself, with no direct spiritual experience.
A majority describe the end of the experience as "then I woke up". It's worth noting that even (perhaps especially) those who describe the experience as something fantastic that occurs during sleep, and who describe the end of the experience by saying "and then I woke up", are very specific in describing the experience as one which was clearly not a dream; many described their sense of feeling more awake than they felt when they were normally awake. One compared the experience to that of lucid dreaming, but said that it was "more real".
In some cases, the subjects of OBEs have either willed themselves out of their bodies or found themselves being pulled from their bodies (these instances were usually preceded by the feeling of paralysis). In other cases, the feeling of being outside the body was something suddenly realized after the fact; the subjects saw their bodies almost by accident.
The OBE is not generally long; on the order of a minute or so. Those who experience an OBE may note that the subjective experience is much longer than the objective time passing.
The OBE may or may not be followed by other experiences which are self-reported as being "as real" as the OBE feeling; alternatively, the subject may fade into a state self-reported as dreaming, or they may wake completely. The OBE is sometimes ended due to a fearful feeling of getting "too far away" from the body. Many end with a feeling of suddenly "popping" or "snapping" and sometimes a "Pulling" back into their bodies, some even report being "sucked back" into physical form.
Some subjects experience spiritual epiphanies; others experience a general feeling of peacefulness and love; still others experience fearfulness and anxiety. Finally, some experience only the OBE itself, with no direct spiritual experience.
A majority describe the end of the experience as "then I woke up". It's worth noting that even (perhaps especially) those who describe the experience as something fantastic that occurs during sleep, and who describe the end of the experience by saying "and then I woke up", are very specific in describing the experience as one which was clearly not a dream; many described their sense of feeling more awake than they felt when they were normally awake. One compared the experience to that of lucid dreaming, but said that it was "more real".
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